GRAMMAR OF THE FILM LANGUAGE

1 FILM LANGUAGE AS A SYSTEM OF VISUAL COMMUNICATION = 1 Beginnings of film language = 2 Types of film maker = 3 Forms of film expression = 3 Defining out aims = 4 2 THE IMPORTANCE OF PARALLEL FILM EDITING = 6 Two basic types = 6 Action and reaction = 8 Peak moments and the understanding = 9 How parallel editing is obtained = 10 A wider perspective = 11 3 DEFINING THE BASIC TOOLS = 12 Newsreel = 12 Documentary = 13 Fiction film = 14 Three types of scene = 14 Elements of film grammar = 15 The shot = 15 Movement = 15 Distances = 16 Types of editing = 17 Visual punctuation = 18 Scene matching = 19 Opposed glances = 21 Centre of interest alternates = 23 4 THE TRIANGLE PRINCIPLE = 26 Basic body positions = 26 Line of interest = 27 Importance of the heads = 30 Five basic variations of the triangle principle = 32 Emphasis by composition = 36 Types of visual emphasis = 39 Triangle principle: One person = 46 5 DIALOGUE BETWEEN TWO PLAYERS = 50 Face to face = 50 Number contrast = 52 Performers side by side = 52 Players behind one another = 55 Word of caution = 59 Camera distance = 61 Camera and actor height = 62 Subject lying side by side = 66 Telephone conversations = 68 Opposed diagonals = 69 Translucent density masks = 73 Players reflected on mirrors = 74 6 THREE-PLAYER DIALOGUE = 75 Regular cases = 75 Irregular cases = 76 External/internal reverse camera positions = 80 Internal reverse camera positions = 84 Parallel camera positions = 84 Pivoting point = 85 Emphasizing the centre of interest = 90 Partial emphasis = 91 Total emphasis = 93 A ‘north-south’ to ‘east-west’ change = 95 Using only four camera positions = 95 Introducing internal shots = 98 Eight camera sites are employed = 100 A simple method using three camera sites = 103 Using a pivoting shot = 104 Deliberate omission = 105 Summing up = 107 7 DIALOGUE INVOLVING FOUR OR MORE PERSONS = 109 Simple cases = 109 1 Using a common visual axis = 110 2 Using a right angle camera site = 111 Groups arranged round a table = 112 Subdividing the group = 116 Geometrical patterns = 118 Several opposed sectors = 121 Handling large groups = 124 A performer faces an audience = 124 A crosswise change of the line of interest = 127 Crowd with main player at centre = 129 Actors as pivots = 130 8 EDITING PATTERNS FOR STATIC DIALOGUE SCENES = 135 Approaching and receding patterns = 136 How a sequence begins = 136 Re-establishing shots = 137 Importance of silent reactions = 138 Inserts and cut-aways = 138 Number contrast = 149 Parallel editing of master shots = 149 Line of interest—changing sides = 152 Pause between dialogues = 152 Time compression = 156 Speeding dialogue tempo = 159 9 THE NATURE OF SCREEN MOTION = 160 Motion broken down = 162 Changing view with movement = 163 Using cut-aways = 164 Neutral direction = 164 Performer indicates the change = 164 Contrasting motions in the same half screen = 172 Conditions of the cut = 175 Where to cut = 175 Cutting on action = 176 10 CUTTING AFTER THE MOVEMENT = 178 11 MOTION INSIDE THE SCREEN = 188 Turning = 189 Using a common visual axis = 213 Brief summary = 245 A personal preference = 248 12 MOTION INTO AND OUT OF SHOT = 249 Multiple fragments = 249 Motion in three fragments = 250 13 PLAYER A MOVES TOWARDS PLAYER B = 261 Converging motion = 261 Right angle camera sites = 262 Reverse camera angles = 266 Parallel camera sites = 268 Common visual axis = 268 A walks beyond B = 274 14 USING MASTER SHOTS TO COVER MOTIONS ON THE SCREEN = 276 15 IRREGULAR CASES = 289 Visual pause with larger groups = 290 The pause is omitted = 293 Using reverse angles = 294 Divergent motions = 298 Constant screen position for one player = 298 Both players move = 299 16 PLAYER A MOVES AWAY FROM PLAYER B = 301 17 PLAYERS MOVE TOGETHER = 322 Intermittent motion = 339 18 SOLVING DIFFICULT EDITING SITUATIONS = 340 Movement between camera and static subject = 340 Motion at the beginning of the second shot = 343 Motion beyond the static players = 345 Using right angle camera sites = 346 Both players move = 348 Hiding a moving subject in the first shot = 349 Using a strong foreground motion = 351 Substitution of the static subject = 351 Redirecting attention = 353 Using non-human movement = 357 Parting curtain effect = 359 19 OTHER TYPES OF MOTION = 360 Circular movement = 360 Vertical movement = 370 Dynamic stops = 376 20 TWENTY BASIC RULES FOR CAMERA MOVEMENT = 380 Movement and the camera = 380 Basic guidelines for camera movement = 380 Solid dramatic motivation = 384 21 THE PANNING CAMERA = 385 Scanning panoramically = 385 Chase sequences = 386 Intermittent panning = 399 Full circle panning = 401 Fast panning = 403 In two directions = 405 Vertical tilts = 406 Side tilts = 409 Jointing a static and a panning shot = 409 Editing two consecutive panning shots = 415 Acrobatic pans = 421 22 THE TRAVELLING CAMERA = 424 Intermittent action covered by a continuous tracking = 424 Joining a static and a tracking shot = 426 Intermittent camera tracking = 433 Using both sides of the track = 436 Winding paths = 437 Panning while tracking = 443 Camera and performers move in opposite directions = 446 Single file formations = 454 Tracking speed = 456 Subject approaches tracking camera = 457 Editing consecutive tracking shots = 458 Static shots intercut within a tracking master shot = 461 Circular tracking = 464 23 THE CAMEARA CRANE AND THE ZOOM LENS = 469 Following action = 469 Foreground props stress height = 469 To visually unite two or more story points = 470 To inject movement into static situations = 471 To single out a story point in a panoramic movement = 472 To provide strong movement for cutting on action = 474 Zooming = 475 Zooming speeds = 476 Zooming and panning combined = 477 Tilt shots using zoom effects = 479 Camera tracks as it zooms = 479 Zooming through foreground obstacles = 482 24 ACTION SCENES = 483 Standard formulas = 484 The subjective point of view = 486 Five ways of enhancing visual action = 492 Reaching a visual climax = 495 Breaking the climatic action into several shots = 497 High speed and slow motion for action sequences = 500 Follow focus technique = 501 25 EDITING IN THE CAMERA = 502 Pre-planning is required = 502 The pause between movements = 503 The change of zone = 503 Approaching or receding from the camera = 508 Changing the body position = 514 Substitution by sectors = 516 Switching screen sectors = 523 Numerical contrast = 533 Editing within the film frame = 538 26 MOVING FROM ZONE TO ZONE = 542 General principles = 542 A group moving from zone to zone = 543 The group expands = 545 Two further variants = 548 A player moves, the other remains still = 551 The group contracts = 554 Devices for zone change = 554 27 COMBINED TECHNIQUES = 564 Shot by shot editing = 564 Merging the techniques = 571 Summing up = 577 28 FILM PUNCTUATION = 579 Transitions from scene to scene: fade out—fade in = 579 White-outs and colour fades = 579 Dissolve = 579 Wipe = 580 Iris = 580 Use of dark areas = 581 Titles = 581 Props = 581 Light change = 581 Question and answer = 582 A movement in the same direction = 582 Substitution of an object = 582 Word repetition = 582 A deceptive visual match = 582 Cutting around a prop = 587 A sudden close up = 588 Transition by parallel editing = 588 Scene openers = 589 The actor = 590 The camera = 590 Introducing points of view = 591 Abrupt jump cuts used as punctuation = 595 Jump cuts as time transitions = 597 Selected peaks of action = 597 Inaction as punctuation = 599 Single shots as pauses in narration = 599 An entire sequence used as a narrative pause = 601 Out of focus images as punctuation = 602 Dark screen used as punctuation = 603 Punctuation by camera motion = 604 Vertical punctuation = 611 Frozen frame = 614 INDEX = 616

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